Spin Hall effects convert charge currents into spin currents and vice versa even in nonmagnetic conductors due to spin orbit coupling. This enables spin Hall effects to be utilized both for the generation and detection of spin currents and magnetization dynamics. This paper reviews the experimental characterization of these effects in metallic systems, which have so far shown the highest efficiency in using spin Hall effects for charge-to-spin interconversion. The advantages and disadvantages of complimentary measurement techniques are discussed and in addition an outlook of the possible impact on applications is presented.
Microwave ferrites are ubiquitous in systems that send, receive, and manipulate electromagnetic signals across very high frequency to quasi-optical frequency bands. In this paper, modern microwave ferrites are reviewed including spinel, garnet, and hexaferrite systems as thin and thick films, powders and compacts, and metamaterials. Their fundamental properties and utility are examined in the context of high frequency applications ranging from the VHF to millimeter-wave bands. Perspective and outlook of advances in theory, processing, and devices occurring in the science and engineering communities since the year 2000 are presented and discussed.
Biomedical nanomagnetics is a multidisciplinary area of research in science, engineering and medicine with broad applications in imaging, diagnostics and therapy. Recent developments offer exciting possibilities in personalized medicine provided a truly integrated approach, combining chemistry, materials science, physics, engineering, biology and medicine, is implemented. Emphasizing this perspective, here we address important issues for the rapid development of the field, i.e., magnetic behavior at the nanoscale with emphasis on the relaxation dynamics, synthesis and surface functionalization of nanoparticles and core-shell structures, biocompatibility and toxicity studies, biological constraints and opportunities, and in vivo and in vitro applications. Specifically, we discuss targeted drug delivery and triggered release, novel contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging, cancer therapy using magnetic fluid hyperthermia, in vitro diagnostics and the emerging magnetic particle imaging technique, that is quantitative and sensitive enough to compete with established imaging methods. In addition, the physics of self-assembly, which is fundamental to both biology and the future development of nanoscience, is illustrated with magnetic nanoparticles. It is shown that various competing energies associated with self-assembly converge on the nanometer length scale and different assemblies can be tailored by varying particle size and size distribution. Throughout this paper, while we discuss our recent research in the broad context of the multidisciplinary literature, we hope to bridge the gap between related work in physics/chemistry/engineering and biology/medicine and, at the same time, present the essential concepts in the individual disciplines. This approach is essential as biomedical nanomagnetics moves into the next phase of innovative translational research with emphasis on development of quantitative in vivo imaging, targeted and triggered drug release, and image guided therapy including validation of delivery and therapy response.
Permanent-magnet (PM) motors with both magnets and armature windings on the stator (stator PM motors) have attracted considerable attention due to their simple structure, robust configuration, high power density, easy heat dissipation, and suitability for high-speed operations. However, current PM motors in industrial, residential, and automotive applications are still dominated by interior permanent-magnet motors (IPM) because the claimed advantages of stator PM motors have not been fully investigated and validated. Hence, this paper will perform a comparative study between a stator-PM motor, namely, a flux switching PM motor (FSPM), and an IPM which has been used in the 2004 Prius hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). For a fair comparison, the two motors are designed at the same phase current, current density, and dimensions including the stator outer diameter and stack length. First, the Prius-IPM is investigated by means of finite-element method (FEM). The FEM results are then verified by experimental results to confirm the validity of the methods used in this study. Second, the FSPM design is optimized and investigated based on the same method used for the Prius-IPM. Third, the electromagnetic performance and the material mass of the two motors are compared. It is concluded that FSPM has more sinusoidal back-EMF hence is more suitable for BLAC control. It also offers the advantage of smaller torque ripple and better mechanical integrity for safer and smoother operations. But the FSPM has disadvantages such as low magnet utilization ratio and high cost. It may not be able to compete with IPM in automotive and other applications where cost constraints are tight.
In this paper, switched flux permanent magnet (SFPM) machines are analyzed from the perspective of the air-gap field harmonics. It is found that the modulation of the salient rotor to PM and armature reaction fields in SFPM machines is similar to that of the iron pieces to those fields in the magnetic gear and magnetically geared machine. The magnetic gearing effect is analyzed in SFPM machines with different stator/rotor pole combinations, winding configurations, and stator lamination segment types by a simple magnetomotive force-permeance model, and validated by finite-element (FE) analysis. Different from fractional-slot surface-mounted PM machines in which the working air-gap field harmonic generates 95% of the average electromagnetic torque, 95% of the average electromagnetic torque in SFPM machines having ps stator pole pairs and n r rotor poles are contributed by several dominating field harmonics, i.e., rotating ones with |kn r ± (2i - 1)p s | pole pair (k = 1, i = 1, 2, 3) and static ones with (2i - 1)ps pole pair (i = 1, 2, 3). The FE predicted average static torques in SFPM machines are validated by measurements on prototype machines.
This paper formulates a general analytic approach to the theory of microwave generation in magnetic nano-structures driven by spin-polarized current and reviews analytic results obtained in this theory. The proposed approach is based on the universal model of an auto-oscillator with negative damping and nonlinear frequency shift. It is demonstrated that this universal model, when applied to the case of a spin-torque oscillator (STO) based on a current-driven magnetic nano-pillar or nano-contact, gives adequate description of most of the experimentally observed properties of STO. In particular, the model describes the power and frequency of the generated microwave signal as functions of the bias current and magnetic field, predicts the magnitude and properties of the generation linewidth, and explains the STO behavior under the influence of periodic and stochastic external signals: frequency modulation, phase-locking to external signals, mutual phase-locking in an array of STO, broadening of the generation linewidth near the generation threshold, etc. The proposed nonlinear auto-oscillator theory is rather general and can be used not only for the development of practical nano-sized STO, but, also, for the description of nonlinear auto-oscillating systems of any physical nature.
The principles of operation of permanent magnets are summarized, and their development is reviewed. The key figure of merit, the energy product, improved exponentially over much of the 20th century, doubling roughly every 12 years. Yet it has not improved significantly in the last 20 years. Constraints on further development are explained, together with the limits of 1/4 μ 0 /M s 2 on energy product and 2K 1 /μ 0 M s on coercivity, where K 1 is the uniaxial anisotropy constant and Ms is the spontaneous magnetization. The challenge of making rare-earth free magnets with a large energy product is discussed, as well as nanocomposite megajoule magnets and the development of new magnetically hard thin-films with perpendicular anisotropy which are potentially interesting for spin electronics or magnetic recording.
This paper overviews the recent development and new topologies of flux-switching (FS) machines, with particularly emphasis on the permanent magnet (PM) type. Specific design issues, including winding configurations, combinations of stator and rotor pole numbers, rotor pole width, split ratio, etc., are investigated, while the torque capability of selected FSPM machines is also compared.
A novel analytical model of inductively coupled wireless power transfer is presented. For the first time, the effects of coil misalignment and geometry are addressed in a single mathematical expression. In the applications envisaged, such as radio frequency identification (RFID) and biomedical implants, the receiving coil is normally significantly smaller than the transmitting coil. Formulas are derived for the magnetic field at the receiving coil when it is laterally and angularly misaligned from the transmitting coil. Incorporating this magnetic field solution with an equivalent circuit for the inductive link allows us to introduce a power transfer formula that combines coil characteristics and misalignment factors. The coil geometries considered are spiral and short solenoid structures which are currently popular in the RFID and biomedical domains. The novel analytical power transfer efficiency expressions introduced in this study allow the optimization of coil geometry for maximum power transfer and misalignment tolerance. The experimental results show close correlation with the theoretical predictions. This analytic technique can be widely applied to inductive wireless power transfer links without the limitations imposed by numerical methods.
The paper presents an accurate analytical subdomain model for computation of the open-circuit magnetic field in surface-mounted permanent-magnet machines with any pole and slot combinations, including fractional slot machines, accounting for stator slotting effect. It is derived by solving the field governing equations in each simple and regular subdomain, i.e., magnet, air-gap and stator slots, and applying the boundary conditions to the interfaces between these subdomains. The model accurately accounts for the influence of interaction between slots, radial/parallel magnetization, internal/external rotor topologies, relative recoil permeability of magnets, and odd/even periodic boundary conditions. The back-electromotive force, electromagnetic torque, cogging torque, and unbalanced magnetic force are obtained based on the field model. The relationship between this accurate subdomain model and the conventional subdomain model, which is based on the simplified one slot per pole machine model, is also discussed. The investigation shows that the proposed accurate subdomain model has better accuracy than the subdomain model based on one slot/pole machine model. The finite element and experimental results validate the analytical prediction.
Bit-patterned media (BPM) for magnetic recording provides a route to thermally stable data recording at >1 Tb/in 2 and circumvents many of the challenges associated with extending conventional granular media technology. Instead of recording a bit on an ensemble of random grains, BPM comprises a well-ordered array of lithographically patterned isolated magnetic islands, each of which stores 1 bit. Fabrication of BPM is viewed as the greatest challenge for its commercialization. In this paper, we describe a BPM fabrication method that combines rotary-stage e-beam lithography, directed self-assembly of block copolymers, self-aligned double patterning, nanoimprint lithography, and ion milling to generate BPM based on CoCrPt alloy materials at densities up to 1.6 Td/in 2 . This combination of novel fabrication technologies achieves feature sizes of <;10 nm, which is significantly smaller than what conventional nanofabrication methods used in semiconductor manufacturing can achieve. In contrast to earlier work that used hexagonal arrays of round islands, our latest approach creates BPM with rectangular bit cells, which are advantageous for the integration of BPM with existing hard disk drive technology. The advantages of rectangular bits are analyzed from a theoretical and modeling point of view, and system integration requirements, such as provision of servo patterns, implementation of write synchronization, and providing for a stable head-disk interface, are addressed in the context of experimental results. Optimization of magnetic alloy materials for thermal stability, writeability, and tight switching field distribution is discussed, and a new method for growing BPM islands from a specially patterned underlayer-referred to as templated growth-is presented. New recording results at 1.6 Td/in 2 (roughly equivalent to 1.3 Tb/in 2 ) demonstrate a raw error rate <;10 -2 , which is consistent with the recording system requirements of modern hard drives. Extendibility of BPM to higher densities and its eventual combination with energy-assisted recording are explored.
Spin-transfer torque random access memory (STT-RAM) is a potentially revolutionary universal memory technology that combines the capacity and cost benefits of DRAM, the fast read and write performance of SRAM, the non-volatility of Flash, and essentially unlimited endurance. In order to realize a small cell size, high speed and achieve a fully functional STT-RAM chip, the MgO-barrier magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJ) used as the core storage and readout element must meet a set of performance requirements on switching current density, voltage, magneto-resistance ratio (MR), resistance-area product (RA), thermal stability factor (¿) , switching current distribution, read resistance distribution and reliability. In this paper, we report the progress of our work on device design, material improvement, wafer processing, integration with CMOS, and testing for a demonstration STT-RAM test chip, and projections based on modeling of the future characteristics of STT-RAM.
This paper proposes a new approach to magnetic recording based on shingled writing and two-dimensional readback and signal-processing. This approach continues the use of conventional granular media but proposes techniques such that a substantial fraction of one bit of information is stored on each grain. Theoretically, areal-densities of the order of 10 Terabits per square inch may be achievable. In this paper we examine the feasibility of this two-dimensional magnetic recording (TDMR) and identify the significant challenges that must be overcome to achieve this vision.
The Technical Committee of the IEEE Magnetics Society has selected seven research topics to develop their roadmaps, where major developments should be listed alongside expected timelines: 1) hard disk drives; 2) magnetic random access memories; 3) domain-wall devices; 4) permanent magnets; 5) sensors and actuators; 6) magnetic materials; and 7) organic devices. Among them, magnetic materials for spintronic devices have been surveyed as the first exercise. In this roadmap exercise, we have targeted magnetic tunnel and spin-valve junctions as spintronic devices. These can be used, for example, as a cell for a magnetic random access memory and a spin-torque oscillator in their vertical form as well as a spin transistor and a spin Hall device in their lateral form. In these devices, the critical role of magnetic materials is to inject spin-polarized electrons efficiently into a nonmagnet. We have accordingly identified two key properties to be achieved by developing new magnetic materials for future spintronic devices: 1) half-metallicity at room temperature (RT) and 2) perpendicular anisotropy in nanoscale devices at RT. For the first property, five major magnetic materials are selected for their evaluation for future magnetic/spintronic device applications: 1) Heusler alloys; 2) ferrites; 3) rutiles; 4) perovskites; and 5) dilute magnetic semiconductors. These alloys have been reported or predicted to be half-metallic ferromagnets at RT. They possess a bandgap at the Fermi level E F only for its minority spins, achieving 100% spin polarization at E F . We have also evaluated L 10 alloys and D 022 -Mn alloys for the development of a perpendicularly anisotropic ferromagnet with large spin polarization. We have listed several key milestones for each material on their functionality improvements, property achievements, device implementations, and interdisciplinary applications within 35 years time scale. The individual analyses and the projections are discussed in the following sections.
In this paper, we present a novel mechanism for recording at a head held significantly below the medium coercivity in a perpendicular recording geometry. By applying a localized ac field at adequate frequency to the perpendicular recording medium, saturation recording can be achieved with recording field amplitudes significantly below the medium coercivity, or the medium perpendicular anisotropy field. A scheme utilizing spin torque to generate a localized ac field at high frequency (tens of gigahertz) with kilo-oersted field amplitude in the medium is proposed along with a systematic modeling analysis. Recording simulations at high linear densities are presented.
The HDD industry is at a critical technology cross roads and it is paramount that we quickly establish comprehensive paths to push beyond the superparamagnetic limit. Several promising technology options have been explored to increase the areal density beyond the limit such as bit patterned magnetic recording (BPMR), heat assisted magnetic recording (HAMR), and microwave assisted magnetic recording (MAMR). In addition to these three technology options, there is recent interest in a fourth approach that has the advantage of staying with a relatively conventional perpendicular medium and head. This combines shingled write recording (SWR) and/or 2-D read back and signal processing. Either technique can be used separately to give large gains and the combination of the two, which is referred to as 2-D magnetic recording (TDMR), promises particularly large gains. Recording with energy assist on BPM or 2-D signal processing will enable the areal density beyond around 5 Tb/in 2 , although none of them have shown a clear problem-free solution. Precompetitive research projects and programs have recently started targeting 2 Tb/in 2 by 2010 for SRC, 5 Tb/in 2 by 2013 for NEDO, and 10 Tb/in 2 by 2015 for INSIC. This paper reviews the technology options ahead, and the pros & cons for each option. We include a brief introduction to SWR and TDMR.
This paper discusses heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) media requirements and challenges for areal densities (AD) beyond 1 Tb/in(2). Based on recent roadmap discussions the focus is primarily on granular chemically ordered L1(0) FePtX-Y- perpendicular media with reduced average grain size down to = 3-5 nm relative to current CoCrPt based perpendicular magnetic recording (PMR) media with average grain size = 7-9 nm. In HAMR media the combination of thermal conductivity and Curie temperature T-C determines the required laser power during recording. Key challenges are sigma variations of D and T-C which need to be reduced to sigma(D)/D similar to 10-15% and sigma(TC)/T-C similar to 2%. In addition AD is limited by switching field distribution (SFD) and thermal spot size. The key goal going forward is to optimize heads, media, head-media-spacing ( HMS) and read-back channel technologies to extend AD to 4 Tb/in(2) and beyond.
There are two main thrusts towards new permanent-magnet materials: improving extrinsic properties by nanostructuring and intrinsic properties by atomic structuring. Theory-both numerical and analytical-plays an important role in this ambitious research. Our analysis of aligned hard-soft nanostructures shows that soft-in-hard geometries are better than hard-in-soft geometries and that embedded soft spheres are better than sandwiched soft layers. Concerning the choice of the hard phase, both a high magnetization and a high anisotropy are necessary. As an example of first-principle research, we consider interatomic Mn exchange in MnAl and find strongly ferromagnetic intralayer exchange, in spite of the small Mn-Mn distances.
There are numerous emerging nonvolatile memory technologies, which have been proposed as being capable of replacing hard disk drives (HDDs). In this paper, the prospects for these alternative technologies to displace HDDs in 2020 are analyzed. In order to compare technologies, projections were made of storage density and performance in year 2020 for both hard disks and the alternative technologies, assuming the alternative technologies could solve their remaining problems and assuming that hard drives would continue to advance areal density at a pace of about 40% per year, which would result in a two-disk 2.5-in disk drive that stores approximately 40 Terabytes and costs about 40. A major conclusion of the study is that to compete with hard drives on a cost per terabyte basis will be challenging for any solid state technology, because the ITRS lithography roadmap limits the density that most alternative technologies can achieve. Those technologies with the best opportunity have a small cell size and the capability of storing multiple bits per cell. Phase change random access memory (PCRAM) and spin transfer torque random access memory (STTRAM) appear to meet these criteria. PCRAMs are being marketed by at least one supplier and therefore appear to be closer to practical realization. On the other hand, STTRAMs would appear to have a performance edge assuming they, too, can be brought to market with multiple bits per cell. Although there are technologies that are not limited by the lithography roadmap and thus have greater areal density potential, they tend to be further from practical realization.
